The "burning mountain" -- Yanardag in Azerbaijani -- is fed by underground gas rising to the surface and igniting upon contact with oxygen.

The abundance of naturally occurring fires from the energy-rich nation's huge gas deposits has earned it the nickname "The Land of Fire".

Azerbaijan's vast oil and gas resources "have shaped the history, culture, politics and the economy" of the Caspian nation, said energy expert Kamalya Mustafayeva.

Its oil deposits -- seven billion barrels of proven reserves -- were discovered in the mid-19th century, making what was then part of the Russian Empire one of the first places in the world to start commercial oil production.

"The world's first industrial onshore oil well was drilled in Azerbaijan, and also the first offshore one," Ashraf Shikhaliyev, the director of the energy ministry's international cooperation department, told AFP.

- 'Born of an oil boom' -

Since gaining independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, Azerbaijan has produced 1.05 billion tonnes of oil and is set to increase its natural gas production by more than a third in the next decade.

Revenues from oil and gas production make up about 35 percent of the country's GDP and nearly half of the state budget.

"Azerbaijan's oil revenues -- up to $200 billion to date since 1991 -- gave the country an opportunity to make a huge leap forward," said Sabit Bagirov, who headed the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan (Socar) in the 1990s.

Energy expert Ilham Shaban said "Baku, once a small fishermen's hamlet of some 4,000 people, was born of an oil boom," which led to massive population growth -- at a faster rate from the 1890s than London, Paris or New York.

Modern Baku is a bustling metropolis dotted with skyscrapers, seaside promenades and futuristic buildings designed by world-renowned architects.

The Azerbaijani capital has become a venue for major international events, such as the 2012 Eurovision Song Contest, matches in the Euro 2020 football championship and the Formula 1 motor racing Grand Prix.

The manna of petrodollars helped Azerbaijan to arm itself against arch-foe Armenia, and last year Baku recaptured its breakaway Karabakh region from Armenian separatists who had controlled it for decades.

- 'Europe's energy security' -

About 75 percent of Azerbaijan's energy exports go to European markets.

In 2022, the European Commission -- keen to reduce Europe's dependence on Russian gas -- signed a deal with Baku to double gas imports from the country.

While Azerbaijan's share of gas supplies to Europe might only reach five percent by 2033, the country can meet all the gas needs of Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, Albania and the south of Italy, said Bagirov.

"Azerbaijan has become an important factor in ensuring Europe's energy security," said expert Mustafayeva.

But its fossil fuel reserves, which President Ilham Aliyev has called "a gift of God", are expected to be exhausted within several decades.

"Azerbaijan's oil wells will run dry within 20 years; the natural gas reserves will last for 50 years," Bagirov said.

"Economic dependence on hydrocarbons is a concern for the Azerbaijani government, which is making serious efforts to develop other economic sectors," including technology, agriculture and tourism, he said.

Expert Shaban said "Azerbaijan's goal is to get the maximum money from its hydrocarbon resources before Europe reaches its decarbonisation objective," which will lead to a significant drop in the continent's demand for fossil fuels.

- Insufficient green agenda -

This prospect has prompted criticism from environmentalists ahead of COP29.

"COP hosts have a responsibility to deliver progress and the answer is not found at the bottom of an oil well or a gas pipeline," said Jasper Inventor, Greenpeace International's head of delegation for COP29.

With all the exported gas and oil, the emissions are tallied in the CO2 production of the countries that buy and burn it, and not in those of Azerbaijan.

Yet Azerbaijani officials said the country is making significant strides in setting its own green agenda on its land.

The country aims to increase its renewable energy capacity to 30 percent by 2030 and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 40 percent by 2050.

Shikhaliyev listed "clean energy mega projects" such as transforming the recaptured Karabakh region into a "green energy zone" fully reliant on solar, wind and hydro power.

But experts are adamant that Azerbaijan does not have a climate plan in line with the Paris Agreement.

In September, the Climate Action Tracker group estimated that by 2030, Baku's greenhouse gas emissions will have increased between 23 to 40 percent compared to 2020.

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"I don't like to talk about medical tourism. It's a bit scary," said Dritan Gremi, who heads a dental clinic in the capital Tirana.

"I prefer to talk about happiness tourism, which makes people happy."

Gremi said his clinic offers "high-quality care with equipment that is guaranteed and certified" to European standards at a fraction of the price.

He has Italian, French, Belgian and Swiss clients often lured with package deals that include travel and accommodation costs.

With scandals about shoddy work and disfigured clients taking some of the shine off medical tourism elsewhere, Albanian health authorities say they insist on high-quality care.

Prosecutors carried out checks on 30 cosmetic clinics this month looking for contraband products and Botox, which is banned in Albania.

- Smile sale -

Stephane Pealat's journey to Albania started with hopes for a new, affordable smile.

He and his brother, who are from Valence in the south of France, have long suffered from dental problems, including tooth loss that pushed him to seek a complex dental implant procedure.

"In France we had an initial estimate which was very, very expensive. Then we started looking on the internet -- Bulgaria, Turkey, Albania, Spain," Pealat told AFP.

He learned about the Gremi clinic during a consultation session in Lyon with Albanian dentists.

After an initial visit in August to tour the facilities in Tirana, Pealat and his brother returned in the autumn.

According to Pealat, the dental implant operation he opted for cost roughly 50,000 euros ($54,000) in France, compared to just 13,500 euros in Albania.

It was no small amount for Pealat.

"It is important to have a beautiful smile," he said.

Nathalie Gangloff, who works as an event organiser at a nursing home in Cognac in western France, also opted for an Albania clinic to treat her dental issues.

"My doctor in France told me about a TV documentary" about medical tourism in Albania, Gangloff told AFP.

She paid under 15,000 euros to have her teeth done compared to the 42,000 euros that she would have had to spend in France.

After extractions and implants in February, she returned to Tirana in mid-September for her final work, happy to have regained her smile.

"With my job, it's important to have beautiful teeth and a good hairdo," she told AFP, saying she immediately changed her Facebook profile picture to show off her new pearly whites.

- 'Love and happiness' -

Low overheads and tax have helped Albanian clinics lure customers with lower prices.

The country's medical tourism sector is estimated to earn between 200 and 250 million euros a year, with at least 50,000 Italians visiting Tirana for treatment every year.

However, the procedures are not risk-free.

The head of Albania's national doctors association Fatmir Ibrahimaj said both foreign and local patients should not rely on online advertising alone for cosmetic procedures and should do their due diligence before undergoing treatment.

"A doctor is not a five-star or no-star hotel," Ibrahimaj told reporters.

For Anna Maria, an Italian from Milan, the "smile of the soul passes also through the lips".

The psychologist in her 30s -- who did not want to give her surname -- visited Albania for dental veneers and a lip procedure with the hopes of improving her smile.

"More and more foreign tourists are also getting cosmetic treatments to brighten up their smile," said Monika Fida, a dermatologist and university lecturer in Tirana.

Injections of hyaluronic acid into the lips are particularly popular.

"Above all, they want to feel good, and have well-shaped lips as naturally as possible," added Fida, who said between 750 and 1,000 foreign patients visit her clinic every year.

Vera Panaitov, a 60-year-old Italian chef from Verona, initially came to have her teeth done.

But once in Tirana, she had opted for procedures on her breasts and waist.

"You have to be beautiful at any age and experience love and happiness at every moment," she told AFP, smiling from her hospital bed, saying she felt "happy and rejuvenated".

Christine Cincunegui, a French businesswoman, may soon follow her.

In Paris, she seemed set on going ahead with a dental procedure in Albania after consulting practitioners visiting the French capital.

"Feeling more beautiful and having fun? What more do we want?" she told AFP.

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Clad in a red tunic and donning a 24-carat gold necklace, Tsonev said he sought a more "traditional life" dedicated to the Balkan country's rich past amid all the "turmoil in the world", far away from any "political and economic upheavals".

"It's calm here and the focus is on history," the 47-year-old former waiter said -- though one of its star attractions has become embroiled in accusations of possible fraud targeting an anti-establishment politician.

Tsonev is one of dozens of Bulgarians who have put down roots in the village of Neofit Rilski about 40 kilometres (25 miles) from the Black Sea coast in search of a tranquil, traditional lifestyle.

That search is helped in part by the village's popular historical theme park built by businessman-turned-politician Ivelin Mihaylov.

Having founded the Velichie or Greatness party last year, which has since entered parliament in June, the 47-year-old said his aim was to "make Bulgaria respect itself again".

Instead of bowing down to what Brussels "dictates", adopting the euro and taking sides on the war in Ukraine, Mihaylov told AFP that Bulgaria should connect to its "glorious past".

But Mihaylov and his park have recently been caught up in allegations of fraud, which he denies as "slander" by his political rivals ahead of Sunday's national elections.

- Community spirit -

Several residents of the 1,300-soul village told AFP they appreciate its community spirit and respect for traditional values.

Alexandra Beshevlieva left the capital Sofia years ago to settle in Neofit Rilski, where everything from the impeccable streets to the freshly mowed lawns appears perfect.

"You need to know your roots to know where you're going -- I'm bringing up my children as Bulgarians," said the 37-year-old IT specialist, who lives with her family in a house with 19th-century architectural elements.

Beshevlieva said she enjoyed the "healthy" food she can buy from local producers, while praising the folk dancing activities her children take part in.

Tsonev said he has found happiness in growing roses and medicinal plants in his garden, which he has opened to the public.

His children have Thracian names, harking back to the civilisation that once inhabited the Balkan peninsula from the second millennium BC to the third century AD.

The Thracians became famous for their production of exquisite gold objects, inspiring Tsonev's handmade jewelry.

Politician Mihaylov similarly gave his daughter a name of Thracian descent.

- Opaque financing -

Mihaylov's popular historical theme park is just a stone's throw away from the village centre.

It features replicas of prehistoric mud and reed houses, copies of archaeological objects from 8,000 years ago, as well as "historic" models of tombs and medieval towers.

Elisaveta Slavova, a 36-year-old guide who used to live abroad in Britain, said she learnt about the village on the internet and decided to return to Bulgaria.

"I've found my vocation -- to help people discover the richness of our historical heritage. We're treading on gold here," she said.

Theme park visitors told AFP they are "proud" to be Bulgarian, brushing aside criticism over the facility's financing, which is entirely private.

According to an economist interviewed by lawmakers, the park "only generates losses". Mihaylov said the banks have since stopped granting loans.

Regional prosecutors have not yet acted on accusations of "misleading investors" for lack of evidence, but a new investigation has meanwhile been opened.

Several other investigations into suspected illegal acquisition of property and fraud for the purpose of electoral manipulation are ongoing.

Pounding the campaign trail in the run-up to the elections, Mihaylov denounced his rivals as "a mafia that leaves no room for entrepreneurial freedom".

The politician hopes his Velichie party can repeat its June success in the upcoming vote on Sunday, the seventh in less than four years.

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The simple design of the character -- who is not a cat, but a little girl from London according to Sanrio, the company behind Kitty -- has mileage as a money-spinner for years to come, experts say.

One woman in the US state of California has amassed so much Hello Kitty merchandise that her husband built her a pink so-called "she-shed" to keep it in.

Stuffed inside are thousands of toys and other items featuring Kitty and her eye-catching red bow, including rows of sunglasses, a swivel chair and novelty gumball dispensers.

"People my age, you know, we are told many times, 'Hello Kitty is for little kids,' and I laugh at that," said Helen from Riverside County, conceding she is "50-plus".

Helen, who drives a Hello Kitty-decorated SUV and runs the local fan club "Hello Kitty SoCal Babes", has been "obsessed" with the character since its 1970s US debut.

Her vast collection of Hello Kitty plushies "make me feel warm", she said, describing spending hours among the soft toys, many of them rare, on a regular basis.

"Something in my inner child gets healed," she said.

Hello Kitty started life as an illustration on a vinyl coin purse.

It has since appeared on tens of thousands of products -- official and unofficial -- including tie-ups with Adidas, Balenciaga and other top brands.

The phenomenon shows no sign of slowing, with a Warner Bros movie in the pipeline and a new Hello Kitty theme park due to open next year on China's tropical Hainan island.

Sanrio's share price has soared more than seven-fold, pushing its market cap over one trillion yen ($6.8 billion), since young CEO Tomokuni Tsuji took over from his grandfather in 2020.

- 'Pure product' -

"We'd be foolishly cynical to say that we don't need these soft, fluffy, pink things," Christine R. Yano of the University of Hawaii told AFP.

In fact, "given the fraught nature of our contemporary lives, perhaps we need it now more than ever", said Yano, author of the book "Pink Globalization" about Hello Kitty.

"This is not a phenomenon that has died or is going to die, at least soon," she added.

Unlike other Japanese cultural exports such as Pokemon or Dragon Ball, there is minimal narrative around the character, whose full name is Kitty White.

She has a twin sister Mimmy, a boyfriend called Dear Daniel, and a pet cat of her own, Sanrio says. She loves her mother's apple pie and dreams of becoming a pianist or poet.

The rest is left to fans' imaginations -- just like the "abstract, bare design that can speak with a kind of simplicity and elegance to more people", Yano said.

"I call her a pure product," the researcher added.

Some feminists say Hello Kitty's lack of a mouth is a symbol of disempowerment, but Yuko Akiyama, Sanrio's head of global brand management, said it allows the character to "reflect" different emotions.

"So if they're sad, Hello Kitty will comfort you. If you are happy, Hello Kitty is there to share the happiness with you," Akiyama said.

- Kawaii -

Famous Hello Kitty fans include Lady Gaga, Nicki Minaj and Katy Perry, and her appeal extends to royalty: Britain's King Charles wished her a happy birthday this year.

On Hello Kitty's TikTok account -- whose bio is "CEO of supercute" -- sardonic memes and footage from "Hello Kitty Day" at US baseball games delight 3.5 million followers.

Hello Kitty is the epitome of Japan's "kawaii", or cute, soft power, and she is the mascot of a campaign promoting tourist etiquette in Tokyo.

Posters celebrating the 50th anniversary are on display at Sanrio Puroland theme park, where businesswoman Kim Lu from Manila had brought her four-year-old niece during their holiday.

"This really is our priority here in Tokyo," she said.

"To be honest, we really don't know" the reason for Hello Kitty's ineffable success, said Lu, 36.

"I think it's the kawaii charm."

Sanrio owns the copyright to hundreds of other popular characters, and Hello Kitty now accounts for 30 percent of profits, down from 75 percent a decade ago.

But Kitty is still a favourite of 23-year-old Rio Ueno, who took an overnight bus from Japan's northern Niigata region to visit the park with a friend.

"I've had Kitty goods around me since I was a small child," said Ueno, dressed in a fluffy Hello Kitty sweater, sporting a Kitty bag, and clutching a Kitty doll.

"She is someone who is always close to me, and I want it to stay that way."

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The concept brings back the joy of browsing real books to communities where many bookstores have shut, and gives readers more eclectic choices than those suggested by algorithms on online sellers, its proponents say.

"Here, you find books which make you wonder who on earth would buy them," laughs Shogo Imamura, 40, who opened one such store in Tokyo's bookstore district of Kanda Jimbocho in April.

"Regular bookstores sell books that are popular based on sales statistics while excluding books that don't sell well," Imamura, who also writes novels about warring samurai in Japan's feudal era, told AFP.

"We ignore such principles. Or capitalism in other words," he said. "I want to reconstruct bookstores."

His shop, measuring just 53 square metres (570 square feet), houses 364 shelves, selling books -- some new, some used -- on everything from business strategy and manga comics to martial arts.

The hundreds of different shelf renters, who pay 4,850-9,350 yen ($32-$61) per month, vary from individuals to an IT company to a construction firm to small publishers.

"Each one of these shelves is like a real version of a social media account, where you express yourself like in Instagram or Facebook," said Kashiwa Sato, 59, the store's creative director.

- Cafes and gyms -

For now his store Honmaru -- meaning the core of a Japanese castle -- is only in Tokyo, but Imamura hopes to expand to other regions hit hard by bookstore closures.

A quarter of Japan's municipalities have no physical bookstores, with more than 600 shutting in the 18 months to March, according to the Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture.

Imamura in 2022 visited dozens of bookstores that have managed to survive the tough competition with e-commerce giants like Amazon, some by adding cafes or even gyms.

"But that is like putting the cart before the horse. Because if a gym is more profitable, 90 percent of the shop may become a gym, with 10 percent for bookselling," Imamura said.

- Crowd-pullers -

Rokurou Yui, 42, said his three shelf-sharing bookstores in the same Tokyo area are filled with "enormous love" for shelf owners' favourite books,

"It is as if you're hearing voices of recommendations," Yui told AFP.

Owners of regular bookstores put books on their shelves that they have to sell to stay in business, regardless of their personal tastes, he said.

"But here, there is no single book that we have to sell, but just books that someone recommends with strong passion and love for," he said.

Yui and his father Shigeru Kashima, 74, a professor of French literature, opened their first shelf-sharing bookstore, called Passage, in 2022.

They expanded with two others and the fourth opened inside a French language school in Tokyo in October.

Passage has 362 shelves and the sellers help attract customers with their own marketing efforts, often online.

That is in contrast to conventional bookstores that often rely on owners' sole sales efforts, he said.

On weekends, Yui's store sometimes "looks as if it were a crowded nightclub with young customers in their 10s, 20s, 30s" with edgy background music playing, he said.

Customers and shelf-owners visit the bookstore not only to sell and buy books, but to enjoy "chatting about books", he said.

Japan' industry ministry in March launched a project team to study how to support bookstores.

"Bookstores are a hub of culture transmission, and are extremely important assets for the society in maintaining diverse ideas and influencing national power," it said.

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Lamma, which means "gathering" or "hangout" in Arabic, has become a cultural hub for locals and other visitors, featuring an art gallery that showcases Libyan artists, and hosts events and workshops.

But its central mission, its owner said, is raising awareness of an eco-friendly lifestyle in Libya, where green initiatives are scarce as people grapple with the aftermath of a gruelling conflict.

"We use materials that were abandoned in the streets, such as rubber from tyres, wood from trees and construction waste" to build the cafe, said Louay Omran Burwais, an architect who designed and founded Lamma.

"The idea is to show people that what is thrown in the street and may seem ugly or useless is actually still valuable," he told AFP.

Libya was hurled into war after a NATO-backed uprising led to the overthrow and killing of dictator Moamer Kadhafi, followed by years of fighting between militias, mercenaries and jihadists.

Power remains split between a UN-recognised government and a rival authority in the east.

- 'New mindset' -

Behind the long, narrow door into Lamma, visitors are greeted with a kaleidoscope of colours and shapes.

The plant-covered walls contrast with a web of suspended metal scraps, alcoves and slide tunnels that children swoop down through.

"There are no places like this in Libya," said Roula Ajjawi, Lamma's art director. "We base everything on one aspect that we consider very important: recycling."

Families gather at Lamma on Thursdays, the start of the Libyan weekend, when the cafe holds art workshops for children.

Others borrow books from the venue's small library.

Burwais says his team hopes recycling and other eco-friendly practices, which remain rare, start up in Libya, which currently has no recycling facilities.

Visitors to Lamma will recognise familiar everyday objects repurposed throughout the space, Burwais said, but they will "start seeing them differently. We are here to foster a new mindset".

In Libya, the plastic, metal, and glass left from over a decade of civil war destruction are rarely, if ever, reused or recycled, Ajjawi said.

More often, they are abandoned in nature and on the streets, occasionally washed into the Mediterranean by rain and wind.

But with initiatives like Lamma, objects once destined for the landfill are transformed into works of art -- a concept now catching on with locals.

"I love this place," said Riyad Youssef, now a Lamma regular. "The food is great, the service is excellent, and I appreciate the commitment to reducing waste. Every idea here is amazing."

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